BRM Unit 2 Methods of Data Collection

Notes 23 Pages

Bengaluru Central University

Bachelor of Business Administration

Contributed by

Kanika Sura

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS, 4TH SEMESTER BBA, BANGALORE CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

Vinutha T.N, Assistant Professor, MES Institute of Management
1

UNIT 2 - METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Observational and Survey Methods – Field Work Plan - Administration of surveys - Training
field investigators - Sampling methods - Sample size.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
A. PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research
but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys
or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews. This,
in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
I. OBSERVATION METHOD
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under
the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer
behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent,
may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this
method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour
or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’
willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the
part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This
method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are
not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other However,
observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the
information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors
may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely
accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be
observed? How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can
be ensured? In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation. But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to
be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation. Structured
observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study
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Vinutha T.N, Assistant Professor, MES Institute of Management
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the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of
studies, particularly of social sciences. This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or
not sharing the life of the group he is observing. If the observer observes by making himself,
more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members
of the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. But when the
observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant
observation. (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be
unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised
observation.)
There are several merits of the participant type of observation: The researcher is enabled to
record the natural behaviour of the group. The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. The researcher can even
verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a
schedule. But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may
lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-
control is not solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.
Controlled and uncontrolled observation
Controlled and uncontrolled observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged
plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation. In
non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major aim of
this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. It has a tendency to
supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy
and standardisation. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which
generalisations can be built with some degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-controlled
observation is that of subjective interpretation. There is also the danger of having the feeling
that we know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do. Generally, controlled
observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under
controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory
researches.
II. INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
PERSONAL INTERVIEWS:
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the interviewee
may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer
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initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the form
of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct
personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to
be collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain
cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on
account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not
be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the
interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the
problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the
commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of
this method.

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews
involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of
recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down,
asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of approach to
questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and
standardised techniques of recording information. In a non-structured interview, the
interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions
or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so requires. He may even change the
sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses to
include some aspects and exclude others. But this sort of flexibility results in lack of
comparability of one interview with another and the analysis of unstructured responses
becomes much more difficult and time-consuming than that of the structured responses
obtained in case of structured interviews. Unstructured interviews also demand deep
knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. Unstructured interview, however,
happens to be the central technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or
formulative research studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique
of structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for
generalization and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
We may as well talk about focussed interview, clinical interview and the non-directive
interview. Focussed interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and
sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons
and motives. The main task of the interviewer in case of a focussed interview is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance. Such interviews are used
generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured
interviews. The clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations
or with the course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information under it
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is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion. In case of non-directive interview, the
interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with
a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a
comprehensive expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the frame of reference
within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal significance.

Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and weaknesses of
personal interviews can be enumerated in a general way.

The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
1. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
2. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
3. There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
4. Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
5. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
6. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.
7. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not
possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be
held.
8. The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
9. The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method:
It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is
taken.
1. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
2. Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data
may prove inadequate.
3. This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
4. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes
even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
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5. Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising
the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
6. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
7. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free
and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing:
For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be carefully
selected, trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must
possess the technical competence and necessary practical experience. Occasional field checks
should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions
given to them for performing their job efficiently. In addition, some provision should also be
made in advance so that appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected respondents
refuse to cooperate or are not available when an interviewer calls upon them. In fact,
interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Every effort should be made to
create friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while
talking to and discussing with the interviewer. The interviewer must ask questions properly
and intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely. At the same time,
the interviewer must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the respondent and must
clear any doubt that the latter has. The interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous,
conversational and unbiased. The interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a
respondent’s answer but he must keep the direction of interview in his own hand, discouraging
irrelevant conversation and must make all possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.

TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS:
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It
is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these may be
highlighted.
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1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to
exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
III. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being
adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by
governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The method
of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed
in various economic and business surveys.
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for
testing the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much.
Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being
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conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and also
of the survey techniques. From the experience gained in this way, improvement can be effected.

IV. SCHEDULE METHOD
This schedule method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing
a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the
purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions
from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant
for the same in the proforma. In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to
respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in
the said schedules. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also
remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a
particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting
respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The
enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the
investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the
implications of different questions put in the schedule. Enumerators should be intelligent and
must possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they
should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.
This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly
reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations
conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over
the world is conducted through this method
What is the difference between questionnaire and schedule?
Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research
surveys. There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made
many people to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be
the same. But from the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The
important points of difference are as under:
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified
in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule
is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
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3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response
often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of
schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all
questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information
is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as
questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But
in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but
in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to
be illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire
method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending
enumerators over a relatively wider area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions
properly. But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and
accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly
understanding the questions. As a result, the information collected through schedules is
relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.
10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but
in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.
11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire
must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled
in by enumerators and not by respondents.
12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible
while collecting data through questionnaires.

V. OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The other methods of data collection particularly used by big business houses in modern
times.

1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers
of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information
sought is printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the
package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it
back to the dealer.

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2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as
well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail
stores audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market
share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by
questioning but by observation. For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of
stores is visited periodically and data are recorded on inventories on hand either by
observation or copying from store records. Store audits are invariably panel operations, for
the derivation of sales estimates and compilation of sales trends by stores are their principal
‘raison detre’. The principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way
of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store promotion.

3. Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of
goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of
types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are
recorded from the examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit
is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the
assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s preferences.
Quite often, pantry audits are supplemented by direct questioning relating to reasons and
circumstances under which particular products were purchased in an attempt to relate these
factors to purchasing habits. A pantry audit may or may not be set up as a panel operation,
since a single visit is often considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of consumers’
preferences. An important limitation of pantry audit approach is that, at times, it may not be
possible to identify consumers’ preferences from the audit data alone, particularly when
promotion devices produce a marked rise in sales.

4. Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known
as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to
maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to
investigator on demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of
consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. Mostly consume panels
are of two types viz., the transitory consumer panel and the continuing consumer panel. A
transitory consumer panel is set up to measure the effect of a particular phenomenon.
Usually such a panel is conducted on a before-and-after-basis. Initial interviews are
conducted before the phenomenon takes place to record the attitude of the consumer. A
second set of interviews is carried out after the phenomenon has taken place to find out the
consequent changes that might have occurred in the consumer’s attitude. It is a favourite
tool of advertising and of social research. A continuing consumer panel is often set up for
an indefinite period with a view to collect data on a particular aspect of consumer behaviour
over time, generally at periodic intervals or may be meant to serve as a general purpose
panel for researchers on a variety of subjects. Such panels have been used in the area of
consumer expenditure, public opinion and radio and TV listenership among others. Most of
these panels operate by mail. The representativeness of the panel relative to the population
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and the effect of panel membership on the information obtained after the two major
problems associated with the use of this method of data collection.

5. Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect
information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera,
Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera and Audiometer are the principal devices so
far developed and commonly used by modern big business houses, mostly in the developed
world for the purpose of collecting the required information. Eye cameras are designed to
record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a specific portion of a sketch or diagram or
written material. Such an information is useful in designing advertising material.
Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as a result of a visual stimulus. The extent
of dilation shows the degree of interest aroused by the stimulus. Psychogalvanometer is
used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a result of the visual stimulus. Motion
picture cameras can be used to record movement of body of a buyer while deciding to buy
a consumer good from a shop or big store. Influence of packaging or the information given
on the label would stimulate a buyer to perform certain physical movements which can
easily be recorded by a hidden motion picture camera in the shop’s four walls. Audiometers
are used by some TV concerns to find out the type of programmes as well as stations
preferred by people. A device is fitted in the television instrument itself to record these
changes. Such data may be used to find out the market share of competing television
stations.

6. Projective techniques: Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect
interviewing techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists to
use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or intentions
which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out
himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends
unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective
techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys. The use
of these techniques requires intensive specialised training. In such techniques, the
individual’s responses to the stimulus-situation are not taken at their face value. The stimuli
may arouse many different kinds of reactions. The nature of the stimuli and the way in which
they are presented under these techniques do not clearly indicate the way in which the
response is to be interpreted. The stimulus may be a photograph, a picture, an inkblot and
so on. Responses to these stimuli are interpreted as indicating the individual’s own view,
his personality structure, his needs, tensions, etc. in the context of some pre-established
psychological conceptualisation of what the individual’s responses to the stimulus mean.

7. Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover
underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews
are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to
elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics
and motivations. As such, depth interviews require great skill on the part of the interviewer
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BRM Unit 2 Methods of Data Collection

BRM Unit 2 Methods of Data Collection

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